2013—The 7th China-ASEAN Forum Poverty4
Chapter 6: Analysis of Elderly Poverty
XU Liping, WANG Erfeng
80% of the world’s populations do not have sufficient protection in old age to enable them to face health, disability and income risks (ILO, 2002). In developing countries alone, about 342 million older persons currently lack adequate income security. That number would rise to 1.2 billion by 2050, if the coverage of current mechanisms designed to provide old-age income security is not expanded (UN, 2008). With more people getting old, developed nations also face such a challenge.
Over the past decade, China has made great achievements in promoting socio-economic development marked by accelerated industrialization and urbanization, improved living standards and well-established market-based economic system. In the context of sustainable and rapid macro-economic growth, and through conscientious implementation of the Outline for Development-oriented Poverty Reduction for China’s Rural Areas 2001-2010, China has raised living standards and lifted many people out of poverty. As its economy cools down, China has decided to narrow development gap and facilitate restructuring through urbanization. When rural residents are moving to cities in the future, new structural issues will occur as well. Relatively low per capita income, widening income gap, worker-farmer disparity, urban-rural divide and regional disparity, a large number of low-income individuals and special disadvantaged groups, employment of low-income farmers migrating to cities, income and security of those who stay in rural areas are among challenges facing China in the process of urbanization. One challenge, in particular, is an aging population. Given that backdrop, old-age poverty is more evident an issue. This report focuses on poor seniors who are categorized into a special disadvantaged group and identifies a serious mismatch between their poverty status and national efforts of targeted poverty reduction: ill-established social old-age security scheme, public-benefit old-age service facilities, networks and market, weak social management, and a lack of anti-poverty policies and institutional arrangements for the elderly.
In the “12th Five Year Period” when China hits the first peak of growing older population, aging process will pick up pace. Between 2011 and 2015, seniors aged over 60 will grow from 178 million to 221 million with about 8.6 million people getting old annually; the share of older population will rise from 13.3% to 16% with an average annual increase of 0.54 percentage point. The aging process accompanied by more nuclear families and empty-nest families as well as conflicts during socio-economic transition will boost demand for social old-age security and services. In the next 2 decades, more Chinese will get old; by 2030, the size of older population in China will double, hence making poverty reduction efforts doubly hard. Reducing elderly poverty and addressing relevant conflicts are key to China’s future anti-poverty objectives and pivotal to tackle the challenges of an aging society. The central government has issued the Outline for Development-oriented Poverty Reduction for China’s Rural Areas 2011-2020 and made an important judgment that China has entered a new historical stage of poverty reduction and development, a stage featured by a shift from basic subsistence to better subsistence, more assets, improved ecological environment, enhanced development capacity and narrowed development gaps. How to enable middle- and low-income earners and the poor to benefit from China’s growth and to get equal opportunities for development in the process of urbanization are key policy considerations for the government in its “12th Five-Year Development Plan” and in the process of building a moderately prosperous society in an all-round way by 2020.
This report will analyze elderly poverty in China over the past 2 decades and its dynamic changes systematically, identify causes of elderly poverty and put forward appropriate policy suggestions to provide a frame of reference as to reduce elderly poverty, narrow development divide and entitle low-income seniors to share the fruits of economic growth. It is divided into 4 parts. The first part introduces the international background of aging population worldwide and their development status, and in specific, older population living in poverty in major developed and developing countries. The second part illustrates income poverty of China’s senior citizens. The third part describes anti-poverty policies adopted by China and other countries. The fourth part summarizes the whole report.
2.1 Overview
Europe is the “oldest” region while Africa is the “youngest”. Currently, older population aged 65 and over account for 8% of the total. Percentage of the population over 65 in Europe is 16%, followed by Oceania (11%), America (9%) and Asia (7%), and that in Africa is only 3%. It is evident that Europe is the most elderly region while Africa is the least elderly one.
Figure 1 the Youngest and Oldest Continents 2010
Source of Information: Compiled by author.
Source of Data: Population Reference Bureau, World Population Data Sheet 2010。
Nepal is the youngest nation while Japan is the oldest. In 2010, Nepal ranked first in the youngest ten nations. Half of its population was below 15 years old. There was only one Asian nation (Afghanistan) among the other 9 nations. Others were all African nations. The oldest nation in the world was Japan with its population over 65 accounting for 22.6% of the total. The other 9 oldest nations were all European nations (Figure 2).
Figure 2 the Youngest and Oldest Ten Nations
Source of Information: Compiled by author.
Source of Data: Population Reference Bureau, World Population Data Sheet 2010。
Aged dependency ratio is an age-population ratio of those who are older (people aged 65 and over) and those typically in the labor force (people aged 15-64). The higher the ratio is, the lighter the burden of old-age support will be.
Judging from the figure of aged dependency ratio worldwide (Figure 3), the more industrialized and economically developed a nation is, the older and more burdensome it will get. Europe has the heaviest burden of supporting older people, followed by Asia, America and Oceania. Africa has the lightest burden. In 2010, aged dependency ratio in most parts of Africa was 16, i.e. 16 working age persons supporting one older person. In Asia, 10 working age persons support one older person. In America, 7 working age persons support one older person. In Oceania, 6 working age persons support one older person. In Europe, 4 working age persons support one older person.
Figure 3 the World’s Aged Dependency Ratio
Source of Information: Compiled by author.
Source of Data: Population Reference Bureau, World Population Data Sheet 2010。
Judging from the scatter diagram of aged dependency ratio worldwide (Figure 4), in the next 4 decades, aged dependency ratio will drop by 5 percentage points on average. In other words, there are 9 working age persons support one older person now, but there will be 4 working age persons support one older person by 2050. In the next 4 decades, quite a few nations will have a ratio below three.
Figure 4 Scatter Diagram of the World’s Aged Dependency Ratio
Source of Information: Compiled by author.
Source of Data: Population Reference Bureau, World Population Data Sheet 2010。
Currently, countries with heaviest burden of caring for the elderly are Japan, Germany and Italy where 3 working age persons have to support one older person. By 2050, Japan will become No.1 in this regard as one working age Japanese will support one older person. As for Germany, Italy and some other European nations, their burden will become heavier as two of their employed persons will support one of their senior citizens. China is also in for a tough ride. Its current aged dependency ratio stands at 9, but in another 4 decades, the ratio will rapidly drop down to 3, making old-age support in China as difficult as that in developed nations (Figure 5).
Figure 5 Countries with the Heaviest Burden of Supporting Older People
Source of Information: Compiled by author.
Source of Data: Population Reference Bureau, World Population Data Sheet 2010。
2.2 Elderly Poverty Worldwide
Currently, due to differences in statistics, periods and definitions being studied and approaches of study, international comparison on elderly poverty and studies on overall elderly poverty worldwide are yet to be conducted. But given characteristics of national and regional old-age welfare system and especially the pension system, it is still possible to conduct regional comparison on elderly poverty between nations and regions with similarities. This report details elderly poverty around the world and especially that in developed world like EU, US and Ireland and that in countries with medium level of development like Latin America for reference purposes.
Old-age poverty in the US has been a serious and long-term issue. Nearly 10% of older people aged 65 and over suffer from income poverty (income level below the US official poverty line or FPL).
(1)Threshold and Measure of Poverty in the US
According to the official paper on poverty, elderly poverty in the US is defined as deficiency of before-tax income to satisfy basic housing, food and clothing demand. Hence, the US still uses income poverty to define who is poor. The government’s measure of poverty is based on total income a household receives, which includes cash income before tax but excludes non-cash benefits such as food coupons, housing or energy subsidies and tax relief.
The official poverty thresholds are developed by Census Bureau based on family size and family structure. There are 48 possible poverty thresholds that a family can be assigned to. Census Bureau estimates the number of people living in poverty based on the size and structure of the family every year. Those thresholds were originally developed in 1960, based largely on statistics of consumption in the mid-1950s. The same thresholds have been in use for about 55 years, adjusted only annually for overall inflation. At that time, government found that the typical family spent about one-third of its income on food, so poverty thresholds were set at three times the cost of the economy food plan.
The 48 poverty thresholds include poverty threshold for the older families. But it was then assumed that older people needed less cash income to meet their basic needs than the younger people. So poverty threshold for the elderly is lower than that for the younger ones. In 2008, official poverty thresholds for people aged over 65 and below 65 were USD10, 326 and USD11, 201 respectively. The official poverty threshold for an adult aged over 65 is 92% of the threshold for an adult under age 65. If the higher thresholds for younger adults had been used to estimate the number of older people living in poverty, an additional 704,000 older adults would have been counted as poor in 2008 (for a total of 4.36 million), and the poverty rate for adults aged 65 and above would have been nearly 2 percentage points higher (11.5 percent vs. 9.7 percent).
(2)Elderly Poverty in the US (Income and Non-income)
Income Poverty. People aged 65 and older represent 12.6 % of the total U.S. population. According to the official poverty thresholds, nearly 3.7 million older Americans live in poverty with a poverty rate of 9.7 percent. In 2008, children, adults aged 18-65 and adults aged over 65 accounted for 35.3%, 55.5% and 9.2% respectively of the total poor population living in poverty.
Poverty are pervasive for many subgroups of older adults, especially women; widows and people who are divorced, separated, or never married; racial and ethnic minorities; and the oldest adults (people over age 85). But because of Social Security and SSI-which provide uniform federal benefits-the percentage of older adults living in poverty is not that different across the country. 34 states had an elderly poverty rate between 8% and 11.9% in 2008. On the contrary, child poverty rate was higher and varied across nation because benefit levels for assistance programs for families with children are determined by states.
Non-income Poverty. Poor older adults tend to be in poorer health. They tend to have more chronic and disabling health conditions. Health care and support costs are a burden for many poor older adults. In 2006, over 20% of older people’s income was spent on medical treatment and health care which became unaffordable for a half of the poor families with older people. Housing also costs the poor elderly a lot. In 2008, the median poor older household spent 60% of annual household income on housing. Housing costs are extremely unaffordable for 56.9% of older poor households. Most poor older adults had very few assets. In 2005, they had assets of just USD5, 310.
(3)Trends of Poverty in the US
The US has achieved a lot in reducing poverty rate of the elderly. Between 1968 and 1978, the US saw a rapid decrease of poor senior citizens and a drop of poverty rate from 25% to 14%. This was largely due to the significant expansion of Social Security benefits in the 1960s and 1970s. In the following decade, progress has been slowed down, with poverty rate among older adults stabilized at 10%.
Compared to other age brackets, older people in the US are relatively better off. In 2008, as per official poverty thresholds, there were nearly 40 million Americans living in poverty. There were nearly 3.7 million poor older adults with rate of poverty reaching 9.7%, a rate significantly lower than the child poverty rate (19%) and the poverty rate for adults aged 18 to 64 (11.7%).
(1) Measure of Poverty in the EU
EU nations generally define elderly people living in poverty as those who earn 60% of national median income. In addition, EU nations have recently adopted the indicator of material deprivation to monitor poverty and social inclusion together with the indicator of income poverty. But poverty thresholds vary across the EU because they are set based on a percentage of national median income level. Elderly poverty is a dynamic process and a state of relative poverty which changes as income changes (Zaidi Asgbar, 2010).
(2) Elderly Poverty in the EU (Income and Non-income)
As per definitions of poverty mentioned above, among 85 million of older population in EU member countries in 2008, 16 million lived in poverty, with poverty headcount ratio standing at 19%, which means every one out of 5 older persons was poor. In particular, UK had the highest headcount ratio (30%), in contrast, Germany had over 160 million older people, but the ratio was only 15% (Table 1).
Table 1 Elderly Poverty in the EU 2008
Country |
Poverty Headcount Ratio (65+, %) |
Total Number of Older People (65+, 1,000) |
Poor Older People (65+, 1,000) |
Latvia |
51 |
391 |
199 |
Cyprus |
49 |
98 |
48 |
Estonia |
39 |
230 |
90 |
Bulgaria |
34 |
1,323 |
450 |
UK |
30 |
9,844 |
2,953 |
Lithuania |
29 |
533 |
155 |
Spain |
28 |
7,520 |
2,106 |
Romania |
26 |
3,206 |
833 |
|
|
|
|
Finland |
23 |
875 |
201 |
Greek |
22 |
2,090 |
460 |
Malta |
22 |
57 |
12 |
Portugal |
22 |
1,850 |
407 |
Belgium |
21 |
1,820 |
382 |
Ireland |
21 |
479 |
101 |
Italy |
21 |
11,946 |
2,509 |
Slovenia |
21 |
327 |
69 |
Denmark |
18 |
853 |
154 |
|
|
|
|
Sweden |
16 |
1,608 |
257 |
Austria |
15 |
1,425 |
214 |
Germany |
15 |
16,519 |
2,478 |
Portland |
12 |
5131 |
616 |
France |
11 |
10,506 |
1,156 |
The Netherlands |
10 |
2,415 |
241 |
Slovak Republic |
10 |
647 |
65 |
Czech Republic |
7 |
1,513 |
106 |
Luxembourg |
5 |
68 |
3 |
Hungary |
4 |
1,624 |
65 |
|
|
|
|
EU27 |
19 |
84,898 |
16,329 |
EU15 |
20 |
69,818 |
13,621 |
Note: Poverty threshold is calculated as 60% of national medium income level. Income refers to the disposable income of a household, which is adjusted based on family size.
There have been no considerable changes of elderly poverty in EU in recent 5 decades. To illustrate, between 2004 and 2008, Ireland has lifted a great many older people out of poverty largely due to greater inputs into pension schemes, especially non-contributory pensions and pensions for unmarried older adults. National pensions accounted for 32% of average income of the elderly in 2007.
Figure 6 shows that among 18 Latin American countries, 10 countries have higher elderly poverty headcount ratio than the national poverty headcount ratio. A ratio of 31% makes Columbia and Mexico countries with the highest ratio. Brazil has the lowest elderly poverty ratio of 6%, while its national poverty headcount ratio is 22%. Thanks to an effective transfer payment policy, elderly poverty rate in Latin American countries is not high, but without such a policy, nearly half of the elderly in most countries will be reduced to poverty. This is especially true for Brazil, its low ratio is dependent upon transfer payments, without which, the ratio will be as high as 52%.
Figure 6 Elderly Poverty in Latin America
Source of Information: Compiled by author.
Source: Authors’ calculations using data from the Socio-Economic Database for Latin America and the Caribbean (CEDLAS and World Bank) OECD adjusted HH sizes are used to calculate the poverty headcount ratios. The poverty line is ½ of the national median per capita income in the surveys.
3.1 Elderly Poverty Threshold in China and Source of Statistics
There is neither poverty threshold nor poverty measure targeted at older Chinese. But there are two poverty thresholds relevant to older people: One is national poverty threshold. In 2009, it was set at RMB1, 196. The other is subsistence allowance threshold. In 2009, the sub-threshold for rural residents was set at RMB1, 210. And RMB816 were received by rural residents in that year.
China’s poverty threshold is designed for population with capability to work with an aim to reduce poverty through development. As a part of the social assistance program, subsistence allowance system pays out cash to the economically and physically challenged groups. Applying the principle to the older population, poverty threshold should target at older people with capability to work. Subsistence allowance system should be a fallback assistance policy for the older population with no such capability. Based on that logic, poverty threshold should be set higher than subsistence allowance threshold. Then for older people incapable to work, a different poverty threshold should be developed to measure old-age poverty. But before adjusting national poverty threshold in 2011, subsistence allowance threshold had been higher than poverty threshold. That’s because the latter had been at a low level for too long.
The report aims to measure income poverty of older rural residents in order to contribute to anti-poverty policy for the elderly. Therefore, poverty threshold is used as a measure of elderly poverty.
The figures in this report are sourced from The China Health and Nutrition Survey (CHNS). Income variable and consumption variable have been both adjusted to 2009 constant price, so income, consumption and poverty of each year are comparable. Descriptive statistics are presented in table 2.
Table 2 Descriptive Statistics
|
|
1989 |
1991 |
1993 |
1997 |
2000 |
2004 |
2006 |
2009 |
HH Income Per Capita |
Sample Size |
14,215 |
14,272 |
13,438 |
14,275 |
15,512 |
15,143 |
17,803 |
18,288 |
Mean |
2,707 |
2,680 |
3,097 |
3,902 |
5,004 |
6,442 |
7,305 |
10,409 |
|
Age |
Sample Size |
14,346 |
14,452 |
13,626 |
14,478 |
15,798 |
15,123 |
17,808 |
18,389 |
Mean |
47.08 |
46.27 |
45.49 |
44.02 |
43.01 |
42.05 |
40.77 |
39.52 |
|
SD |
17.89 |
18.00 |
18.07 |
18.42 |
18.67 |
19.38 |
18.82 |
19.34 |
|
School Years |
Sample Size |
11,415 |
11,810 |
11,186 |
11,695 |
11,931 |
11,239 |
10,956 |
11,280 |
Mean |
5.549 |
5.959 |
6.342 |
6.452 |
7.169 |
7.441 |
7.450 |
7.487 |
|
SD |
4.019 |
4.054 |
3.931 |
4.076 |
4.051 |
4.196 |
4.563 |
4.460 |
|
Rural Population |
Sample Size |
9,754 |
9,866 |
9,578 |
10,042 |
11,084 |
11,000 |
12,973 |
13,368 |
% |
68.62 |
69.13 |
71.28 |
70.35 |
71.33 |
72.64 |
72.87 |
73.08 |
|
Female |
Sample Size |
7,325 |
7,428 |
7,001 |
7,410 |
8,104 |
7,758 |
9,386 |
9,657 |
% |
50.43 |
50.93 |
50.75 |
50.50 |
50.46 |
50.46 |
52.01 |
52.35 |
3.2 Income Poverty and Poverty Trends
According to the life cycle theory, poverty and living conditions at one’s older age are not only connected with living environment at current stage but also with living conditions at childhood and adolescence. Therefore, it is necessary to perform comparative analysis of elderly poverty and poverty among children and youngsters.
It is calculated based on sample data that rural poverty was remarkably reduced between 1989 and 2009 and headcount ratio dropped from 32% to 8.2% (Figure 7). Divide samples by age, we can see how poverty among children, the young and the elderly have changed over the years. In 1989, child poverty rate hit 41.5%, the highest among the three groups. Elderly poverty rate was 26.7%, the lowest of all. In 2009, poverty rate among children and the elderly was 9.4% and 8.3% respectively, both higher than youngster poverty rate. The changes in that 2 decades shows that child poverty reduction outpaced reduction of the other two types of poverty. More significantly, elderly poverty reduction was the slowest, indicating the chronicity of elderly poverty and the difficulty to get them out of poverty.
Figure 7 Headcount Ratio of Income Poverty among Rural Residents 1989-2009
The older people are, the more likely they will get poor. The oldest old people aged over 80 have the highest headcount ratio. Every one out of five oldest old is living in poverty.
According to the sample statistics, within the group of the elderly, the older a senior was, the more likely he or she would be reduced to poverty, which was especially true for the oldest old aged over 80 since they had the highest headcount ratio. It is notable that headcount ratio of the oldest old dropped from 20.3% in 2006 to 9.1% in 2009, a ratio even lower than that of adults aged 70-79. That might have something to do with subsidies for the oldest old and transfer payments in China. After a marked reduction of poverty among the oldest old, poverty among adults aged 70-79 becomes a more prominent problem and people in that age bracket become the group with the highest headcount ratio. If subsidies for the oldest old did contribute in the first case, policymakers may consider set the eligibility threshold at the age of 70 in order to make the role of subsidies more effective in poverty reduction.
Figure 8 Headcount Ratio of Income Poverty among Older Rural Residents 1989-2009
3.3 Depth of Income Poverty and Poverty Trends
Poverty gap index is a measure of the depth of poverty. It is defined as the average poverty gap in the population as a proportion of the poverty line. Figure 9 indicates PG index of all groups was lower except for the year of 2009; especially the index of child poverty was reduced from 20.4% in 1989 to 5.7% in 2009. But elderly poverty was reduced at the slowest rate. It is notable that poverty among the youngsters deepened in 2009 which may be explained by the international financial crisis of that year. In contrast, poverty among children and the elderly was reduced compared to the previous year, proving that income received by children and the elderly mainly came from their family and transfer payment which was influenced by economic fluctuations in a limited way. It further proves that poverty reduction policy for the elderly was different from that for the youngsters.
Figure 9 Depth of Income Poverty among Rural Residents 1989-2009
The older people are, the farther they are from the poverty line. The oldest old people aged over 80 are farthest from the poverty line. According to the sample statistics, within the group of the elderly, the older a senior was, the farther he or she would be from the poverty line. Similar to poverty headcount ratio, PG index of the oldest old dropped from 12.4% in 2006 to 4.5% in 2009, an index even lower than that of adults aged 70-79. After a marked reduction of PG index among the oldest old, poverty among adults aged 70-79 becomes a more prominent problem and people in that age bracket become the group the most distant from the poverty line.
Figure 10 Depth of Income Poverty among Older Rural Residents 1989-2009
3.4 Trends of Poverty by Region
There are huge regional differences in income poverty among older rural residents. Figure 11 indicates that in economically developed region like Jiangsu province, elderly poverty headcount ratio was as low as 4.47% in 2009. While economically underdeveloped regions such as Henan province in central China as well as Guangxi province and Guizhou province in western China had a higher ratio.
Of the 8 provinces surveyed, Guizhou province, Liaoning province and Henan province reached the highest ratio of 39.6%, 35.8% and 30.9% respectively in 1989. A decade later, Henan province, Guizhou province and Hubei province reached the highest ratio of 15.8%, 11.3% and 10% respectively.
Liaoning province outperformed other provinces in reducing elderly poverty with its headcount ratio reduced from 35.8% in 1989 to 5.59% in 2009, a 30.9% percentage points decline. The ratio was maintained at around 6% except for some bounces back in 1993-1997 and in 2006.
The same cannot be said for Henan province, which saw a relatively high headcount ratio over the years. In 2009, its ratio was 15.8%, making Henan a province with the highest elderly headcount ratio.
Besides Henan province, Guizhou province also suffered from severe elderly income poverty. Elderly poverty headcount ratio in Guizhou continued to drop over the years from 39.6% in 1989 to 11.3% in 2009, a decrease of 28.3 percentage points. However, elderly poverty is still a serious trouble for Guizhou as its one of the provinces with the highest poverty rate.
Figure 11 Income Poverty among Older Rural Residents by Region 1989-2009
3.5 Gender Differences
Studies have shown that due to economic and family status, older females are more likely to be poor, a statement supported by sample statistics of this report. Figure 12 indicates that between 1989 and 2009, gender differences in income poverty among the older rural residents were significant. Poverty headcount ratio of the older females was evidently higher than that of older males. But in 2009, the opposite was true. Poverty headcount ratio of older males (8.49%) was higher than that of older females (8.13%).
Moreover, gender differences took on more dimensions over time. Before 1997, gender differences in poverty among the older people were narrowed down gradually. In 1989, poverty headcount ratio of older females (27.2%) was 0.9 percentage point higher than that of older males (26.3%), but in 1997, the difference was only 0.1 percentage point. After 1997, gender differences in poverty among the older people were widened up gradually. In 2006, poverty headcount ratio of older females (14.4%) was 2.8 percentage points higher than that of older males (11.6%).
Figure 12 Headcount Ratio of Income Poverty among Older Rural Residents by Gender 1989-2009
Depth of poverty among the older rural residents was not that different. Older females were not farther off from the poverty line than their male counterparts (Figure 13).
Figure 13 Depth of Income Poverty among Older Rural Residents by Gender 1989-2009
3.6 Marital Status
Income poverty ratio of unmarried older people, divorced and widowed older people and older people living alone is higher than that of married older people. Figure 14 shows that poverty headcount ratio of unmarried older people and divorced, widowed and living-alone older people was 30.4% and 30.3% respectively in 1989, 4.1 and 4 percentage points higher than that of married older people. Poverty headcount ratio of unmarried older people and divorced, widowed and living-alone older people was 23.5% and 10.8% respectively in 2009, 16 and 3.39 percentage points higher than that of married older people.
Poverty among unmarried older people is more prominent an issue as their headcount ratio is higher than that of divorced, widowed and living-alone older people. Especially after 2004, headcount ratios of income poverty among unmarried older people were maintained above 20%.
Figure 14 Income Poverty among Older Rural Residents by Marital Status 1989-2009
With regard to the depth of poverty, unmarried older people and divorced, widowed and living-alone older people were farther off from the poverty line than married older people. Figure 15 shows that poverty among unmarried older people was deepened, and even deeper than that among divorced, widowed and living-alone older people. Especially in 2009, PG index of unmarried older people was as high as 19.7%.
Figure 15 Depth of Income Poverty among Older Rural Residents by Marital Status 1989-2009
4.1 Policies Reducing Elderly Poverty in the US
Social Security benefits. By far, social security benefits are the main source of income for poor American families with older members. In 2008, 75% of poor families with older members acquired social security benefits. Compared to remunerations, pensions and assets, social security benefits constitute a lion’s share of their income. In fact, poor older Americans rely heavily on such benefits. 45% of poor older adults depend solely on Social Security for all their income and 59% of poor older adults depend on Social Security for 90% of their income.
Supplemental Security Income (SSI). 14% of older households receive Supplemental Security Income or other social assistance benefits. But SSI only contributes 8.3% of their total family income, so its role is quite limited.
Apart from above-mentioned cash assistance programs, there are also non-cash social security nets for poor and low-income older adults covering housing, health care and community care such as insurance premium subsidy programs, long-term care programs, public housing programs and energy assistance programs. See Table 3 for specifics.
Table 3 Non-cash Public Assistance Programs
Program |
Acronym |
Maximum Share of Benefits |
Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (Food Stamps) |
SNAP |
22% |
The Medicaid and the Medicare Savings Programs |
MSPs |
26.4% |
The Medicare Part D Low Income Subsidy |
LIS |
|
Low Income Home Energy Assistance Program |
LIHEAP |
9.2% |
4.2 Policies Reducing Elderly Poverty in the EU
Basic Pension System. Countries with low poverty headcount ratio have established mature and universal basic pension systems such as the Netherlands (elderly poverty rate 10%), Luxembourg (5%), Austria (15%), France (11%) and Sweden (16%). For example, basic pension system in the Netherlands provides a strong social safety net for the elderly. Contributions to the basic pension system are payable at a flat rate and based on residence. Place of employment will not affect payment of pensions. Pensions usually account for 31% of average income.
Minimum Old-age Security Benefits. Pensions in some EU countries are not high, but their elderly poverty rates are still at a low level like Czech Republic (7%), Hungary (4%), Portland (12%) and Slovak (10%) in the Eastern Europe. It can be partly explained by income redistribution through minimum old-age security benefits which bridge the income gap between the old and the young.
Ireland’s National Anti-Poverty Strategy for the Elderly (NAPS 1997-2007) Background Ireland’s economic progress in the 1990s was outstanding. Between 1994 and 2000, Gross National Product grew by an average of 8.3% in real terms and unemployment fell from 14.7% to 3.9%. During that period, great advances were achieved in terms of poverty reduction. The proportion of the population in consistent poverty fell from 15.1% to 8.2%. Government is committed to moving to a more inclusive society. This commitment is reflected in the establishment in 1997 of a National Anti-Poverty Strategy (NAPS), which includes anti-poverty strategies for the elderly. Targets Between 1997 and 2007, the NAPS will aim at reducing the numbers of older people who are ‘consistently poor’ below 2 percent and, if possible, eliminating consistent poverty. By 2003, national guidelines will be put in place for cares of older people. By 2003, access to surgical services will be improved so that no one is waiting longer than 12 months for a surgery. By end 2007, adequate heating systems will be available in all local authority rented dwellings provided for older people. Policy Measures Health: The strengthening of primary health care and the provision of better access for patients to diagnostic and treatment services; the reduction of waiting time for medical services; and the development of a comprehensive injury prevention strategy to reduce higher injury rates in people. Housing: The terms of the Special Housing Aid for the Elderly programme will be kept under review, to ensure that they continue to meet the needs of the categories of person for whom they were intended. Local authorities will, through their tenant liaison officers, pay particular attention to the needs of older people. Local authorities’ housing strategies will make provision for suitable sheltered and supported housing for elderly people. Pensions: Increasing the level of the social welfare pension; extending the coverage of the social insurance system, and the extension and enhancement of occupational and personal pensions coverage. |
Source: Goodbody Economic Consultants, Review of the National Anti-Poverty Strategy, November 2001
4.3 Policies Reducing Elderly Poverty in Latin America
Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Costa Rica and Uruguay have non-contributory pension programs, which are of the nature of social assistance programs targeted at poor older people or disabled people without ability to pay. See Figure 4 for specifics.
Figure 4 Pension Systems in Latin America
Country |
Type |
Year of Reform |
Coverage |
Share of Employed Beneficiaries |
Share of Elderly Beneficiaries |
Argentina |
Mixed |
1994 |
40.9 |
44.6 |
70.5 |
Bolivia |
Private |
1997 |
12.5 |
13.1 |
89.8 |
Brazil |
Public |
- |
48.1 |
51.7 |
85.3 |
Chile |
Private |
1981 |
62.7 |
67.3 |
75.5 |
Colombia |
Public/Private |
1994 |
31.8 |
32.3 |
25.1 |
Cost Arica |
Mixed |
2001 |
62.7 |
65.1 |
59.2 |
Dom Rep |
Private |
2003 |
20.2 |
23.7 |
11.9 |
Ecuador |
Mixed |
2004 |
26.2 |
26.6 |
31.0 |
Guatemala |
Public |
- |
26.8 |
27.2 |
15.4 |
Honduras |
Public |
- |
20.1 |
20.7 |
5.3 |
Mexico |
Private |
1997 |
35.9 |
36.0 |
23.3 |
Nicaragua |
Private |
2004 |
18.5 |
19.3 |
44.9 |
Panama |
Public |
- |
45.1 |
54.4 |
41.7 |
Peru |
Public/Private |
1993 |
14.0 |
14.6 |
27.7 |
Paraguay |
Public |
- |
12.8 |
13.5 |
14.9 |
Salvador |
Private |
1998 |
29.1 |
31.2 |
16.2 |
Uruguay |
Mixed |
1996 |
61.1 |
67.3 |
85.6 |
Venezuela |
Public |
- |
35.3 |
37.8 |
31.3 |
Source: Mesa-Lago (2004) and Rofman et al. (2008)
4.4 Policies Reducing Elderly Poverty in China
Older rural residents have 4 major sources of income: New Rural Old-age Insurance Program, Family Support, Personal Savings and Transfer Payments (Han Peng, 2007). Old-age Insurance Program gives out pensions or social security benefits. Family Support means the elderly are provided for by their children or relatives. Personal Savings are money accumulated by the elderly over the years. Transfer Payments include subsistence allowances and subsidies for the oldest old. Money of a social security nature is one of the major sources of income for the poor older people.
China’s rural pension insurance system was initiated in 1986 and piloted in 1991 as required by the national “7th Five Year Plan”. Major approaches are as follows: Personal contributions supplemented by collective allowances and supported by national policies; personal contributions and collective allowances are debited to participant’s personal account of reserve funds; county government serves as accounting unit and manages the funds according to national regulations (currently, funds are deposited in the bank and appropriated to buy government bonds), and interest is settled by periods; distribution standard is set based on principal and interest as well as life expectancy of participant at the age of 60; an approach of government guidance and voluntary participation is adopted.
When costs of living are paid directly by children or other relatives other than received from old-age security institutions, we can say that the elderly are supported by their family.
At this stage, we need to factor in the number of children when we are talking about old-age support. The Survey on the System of Support for the Elderly in China 1992 shows that after controlling the age of the elderly and other independent variables, the number of children is still statistically significant, indicating that children still plays an important role in supporting their older parents under current settings (Guo Zhigang et al., 1996).
Housing is also relevant to old-age support. According to the Survey on Housing and Family Life in Tianjin and Shanghai 1993, housing is an important factor influencing family models. Of the three factors determining whether married children would live with their parents, changing traditional ideas and two-way demands can no longer sustain the model of extended family. Only family resources, especially housing resources are still a decisive factor (Yao Yuan, 2001).
China’s old-age security mechanism is still in its infancy and yet to improved. Government has been providing assistance and support to the most vulnerable groups including “3 Withouts” older urban residents and “Five-Guarantee Rural Households”, disabled people and orphaned and disabled children for a long time. China’s social security system, therefore, can ensure economic security for the low-income older people. In particular, the subsistence allowance system can benefit both urban and rural older residents while Five-Guarantee Program can benefit older rural residents.
(1) Subsistence Allowance System
Based on the demographic characteristics of the poor, subsistence allowance beneficiaries can be segmented into the following three groups: First, residents without source of income, without ability to work, and without legal dependents or caregivers (3 Withouts); second, residents with HH income per capita lower than local subsistence allowance threshold when they are receiving unemployment relief payments or remain unemployed upon expiration of unemployment insurance period; third, employed and laid-off residents with HH income per capita lower than local subsistence allowance threshold after receiving wages or minimum wages and basic living allowances and retired people after they receive their pensions.
At the end of 2011, there were 26.728 million households and 53.057 million individuals covered by rural subsistence allowance system nationally, meaning that an additional 917,000 individuals were covered by the system or a 1.8% increase year-on-year. Fiscal spending on rural subsistence allowance totaled RMB66.77 billion, a 50.0% increase from the previous year. RMB50.26 billion came from central treasury, accounting for 75.3% of the total. In 2011, national rural subsistence allowance standard was RMB143.2 per person per month, an increase of RMB26.2 or 22.4% compared to the previous year. In practice, average monthly allowances received by an eligible rural resident were RMB106.1 (including one-off living subsidies), a year-on-year increase of 43.4%.
But the institutional framework is not without its deficiencies: single assistance role, low security standard and wide regional disparity; government shouldering some responsibilities of the society and the businesses; urban-rural disparity and failed urban-rural integration in this regard. It is also defective operationally: local financial difficulty and availability of subsistence allowance funding in time; means-testing to beneficiary-to-be; understaffed and incompetent local authority; and repositioning of family assets.
(2) Five-Guarantee Program
The state guarantee on proper food, clothing, fuel, education and funeral expenses for older, vulnerable, orphaned, widowed and disabled community members is termed Five-Guarantee Program. Households entitled to enjoy such benefits are called “Five-Guarantee Households” or “Five-Guarantee Targets” and relevant policies are called “Five-Guarantee Policies”.
3.285 million rural residents have been covered by the program and they each receive RMB989 every year. 632,000 of those people are living in over 30,000 nursing homes for concentrated support and care. In economically developed regions such as Shanghai, Beijing, Guangdong, Jiangsu and Zhejiang, Five-Guarantee standard has reached 60%-70% of local farmers’ net income. Practices over the past five decades speak volumes about the role Five-Guarantee Program plays in promoting rural economic growth and stabilizing rural social order (Song Shiyun, 2007).
(3)Subsidies and Allowances
Beijing introduced the program of subsidized home-based care for the elderly. In October 2009, Beijing municipal government started piloting the program in 10 of the 18 local districts. By May, a total of 45,000 older Beijing residents have benefited from the program. Eligible seniors receive RMB50-250 of subsidies monthly in the form of old-age service coupons. The Old-age Allowance Program for the Oldest Old (people over 90) initiated in 2008 has benefited nearly 20,000 seniors. In line with the rules, older people aged 90-99 receive RMB100 and centenarians RMB200 monthly.
Shanghai municipal government had provided monthly subsidies of no less than RMB75 to residents over age 65 (including 65) with rural registered residence and with monthly pensions below RMB75 since 1 January 2004. In 1 January 2007, the subsidy level was raised to RMB85 per person per month. By end 2007, there were 167,300 rural older people aged 65 and over living in insecurity received rural minimum pensions, accounting for 5.8% of local older people.
Haixi prefecture of Qinghai province made it clear to the county governments that they should give RMB600 of subsidy to each of the elderly aged 80-90 with a local registered residence annually, RMB800 to each of the elderly aged 90-99, and RMB1,200 to each of the centenarians. Subsidies are funded by the county governments based on the principle of residence. Beijing municipal government also specifies that older people aged over 90 who have already applied for and received welfare pension can, if eligible, receive old-age allowances for the oldest old, which means that they get to enjoy double benefits.
Most Western scholars believe that labor market policy, education policy and training program for the poor are ineffective in reducing poverty among the elderly. The only solution is transfer payment (or price subsidy) policy. In developed countries, pension system plays a very powerful role in redistribution and easing elderly poverty. There are two types of pensions aimed at providing a replacement income to old persons under the poverty line (Willmore 2001; Holzmann et al. 2009). The first type of minimum pension covers unconditionally all the elderly. Benefits are the same for everyone regardless of income, assets or work history. In the OECD, only New Zealand provides a universal pension to its aged population with the objective to lift old persons above the poverty line.
The second type of minimum pension is also universal but subject to means-testing. This welfare pension can be completed by housing subsidy or the possibility of being admitted in a public nursing home. A number of developing countries have universal means-tested schemes although the means test applies to the household and not to the individual. The most famous examples are Brazil and South Africa. The South African minimum pension is quite generous in terms of level (about one-third of per capita income). Number of beneficiaries is reaching 88% of the covered population. The pension is paid to men aged 65 and women aged 60 and over. It is funded through general taxation.
In developing countries, the coverage of pension system and its role in poverty reduction are both limited (Jean-Jacques Dethier Pierre Pestieau Rabia Ali, 2010). In low and middle income countries, only four countries have such universal minimum pension arrangements: Mauritius (Africa), Namibia (Africa), Botswana (Africa) and Bolivia (South America). They offer a pension which is relatively low and, with the exception of Mauritius, not high enough to lift its beneficiaries above the poverty line. The Brazilian minimum pension, for which the eligibility age is 60 for men and 55 for women, corresponds to the minimum wage.
Similar to minimum pension, China’s new old-age insurance, with its high coverage but low income replacement ratio, has only limited effect on elderly poverty reduction. Rural subsistence allowance system, as a kind of assistance program, plays a significant role in easing poverty among older rural residents. Old-age Allowance Program for the Oldest Old is also very effective. But as a temporary assistance policy measure, its level and coverage can be easily influenced by local financial strengths.
References
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21. Yao Yuan, A Review of the Researches on Providing for the Aged in Household in China, Population and Economics, No.1, 2001, pp.33-43.
Chapter 7: Urbanization and Urban Poverty in Southeast Asia
LIU Qianqian
In the 1960s and 1970s, the Southeast Asian economies began to take off. With the development of industrialization, these countries also started the process of urbanization. After decades of development, urbanization levels of Southeast Asian countries have increased significantly.
There are significant imbalances in the urbanization levels reached by the different Southeast Asian countries, as clearly shown in Figure 1. Southeast Asian countries can be placed in three categories of urbanization. The first group is countries with relatively high levels of urbanization, including Singapore, Brunei and Malaysia. The urbanization rate of these countries is over 70%. In particular, the urbanization rate of Singapore reached 100% as early as 1960. The second group is countries with moderate levels of urbanization, including Indonesia and the Philippines, with urbanization rates between 40% and 60%. The urbanization rates of Indonesia and the Philippines were 50.7% and 48.8% respectively in 2011, both approximating the world average of 52.1% urbanization. The third category comprises countries with low levels of urbanization, including Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, Vietnam and Thailand, with urbanization rates between 20% and 40%, significantly lower than world average.
Figure 1 Percentage Urban of ASEAN countries in 2011
Source: Compiled and processed from UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs. World Urbanization Prospects 2011. 2012.
1.1 Historical Stages of Urbanization in Southeast Asia
The urbanization process in Southeast Asia can be divided into three stages. The first stage was between the 1950s and 1960s, when urbanization was in its initial development. One after another, Malaysia, the Philippines and Indonesia developed industrialization-focused economic growth plans. For instance, Indonesia devised the industrialization-focused ‘Eight-Year Plan for Comprehensive Development’ and Thailand promulgated the ‘Regulations on Industry Investment Incentives’. Booming industrialization facilitated the process of urbanization. Rapid development of secondary and tertiary industries enabled tides of rural residents to migrate to cities. Populations in countries such as Malaysia and Thailand began to explode.
The second stage was between the 1970s and early 1990s when both urbanization and the economies in Southeast Asia were experiencing rapid development. Due to favorable government policies, industry represented a large proportion of the GDP of many Southeast Asian countries, and most industrial investments concentrated in cities. With the rapid increase in city dwellers and rural-urban migration, urbanization continued at a frenzied pace.
The third stage continues from the 1990s through today, where urbanization is experiencing steady development. Southeast Asian countries are no longer in the single-minded pursuit of rapid economic growth. Instead, they seek sustainable development through economic policies.
1.2 Major Characteristics of Urbanization in Southeast Asia
By observing its historical development, urbanization in Southeast Asian countries has the following characteristics:
Since the 1960s, Southeast Asia has been experiencing an urban population explosion and rapid urban development. In the 1960s, the overall urbanization level was only 18.5%. That figure increased to 25.5% in 1980, 38.2% in 2000 and 44.1% in 2010 (Table 1).
Table 1 Percentage of Urban Population in ASEAN Countries 1950-2010
Country/Region |
1950 |
1960 |
1970 |
1980 |
1990 |
2000 |
2010 |
Brunei |
26.8 |
43.4 |
61.7 |
59.9 |
65.8 |
71.2 |
75.6 |
Cambodia |
10.2 |
10.3 |
16.0 |
9.0 |
15.5 |
18.6 |
19.8 |
Indonesia |
12.4 |
14.6 |
17.1 |
22.1 |
30.6 |
42.0 |
49.9 |
Laos |
7.2 |
7.9 |
9.6 |
12.4 |
15.4 |
22.0 |
33.1 |
Malaysia |
20.4 |
26.6 |
33.5 |
42.0 |
49.8 |
62.0 |
72.0 |
Myanmar |
16.2 |
19.2 |
22.8 |
24.0 |
24.6 |
27.2 |
32.1 |
Philippines |
27.1 |
30.3 |
33.0 |
37.5 |
48.6 |
48.0 |
48.6 |
Singapore |
99.4 |
100.0 |
100.0 |
100.0 |
100.0 |
100.0 |
100.0 |
Thailand |
16.5 |
19.7 |
20.9 |
26.8 |
29.4 |
31.1 |
33.7 |
Vietnam |
11.6 |
14.7 |
18.3 |
19.2 |
20.3 |
24.4 |
30.4 |
Southeast Asia |
15.4 |
18.5 |
21.4 |
25.5 |
31.6 |
38.2 |
44.1 |
Asia |
17.5 |
21.1 |
23.7 |
27.1 |
32.3 |
37.4 |
44.4 |
World |
29.4 |
33.6 |
36.6 |
39.4 |
43.0 |
46.7 |
51.6 |
Source: Compiled from UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs. World Urbanization Prospects 2011. 2012.
Figure 2 reveals the changes in the growth rate of urban population over the years. It is notable that the growth rate of the urban population in Southeast Asia was higher than that of the world average. Before 2000, the growth rate was 3.5%, more than double that of world average. Horizontally, the growth of the urban population in Southeast Asia was faster than that of Europe and North America and that of the Asian average between 2000 and 2005. In 2000, population growth began to slow, slower than Asian average yet faster than other regions in the world. Correspondingly, the growth rate of urbanization in Southeast Asia followed the same pattern between 1950 and 2010 (Figure 3).
Figure 2 Growth Rate of Urban Population in Southeast Asian Cities 1950-2010
Source: Compiled and processed from UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs. World Urbanization Prospects 2011. 2012.
Figure 3 Average Annual Rate of Change of the Percentage Urban 1950-2010
Source: Compiled and processed from UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs. World Urbanization Prospects 2011. 2012.
On the whole, Southeast Asia is urbanizing rapidly, but the level of urbanization varies from country to country. As early as the 1990s, Singapore realized 100% urbanization. In the 1950s and 1960s, Thailand’s urbanization level was higher than that of Indonesia (Table 1). After decades of remarkable development, by 2010, the urbanization level of Indonesia had surpassed that of Thailand, at 50% and 30% respectively. Meanwhile, other countries such as Cambodia not only have a low level of urbanization, but also have a slow urbanization growth rate. Cambodia’s urbanization rate only saw slight increase over the last 60 years, from 10.2% in the 1950s to 19.8% in 2010.
There are several factors contributing to the differences between these Southeast Asian countries. First, there are differences in population size, geographical location and resource endowment. Second, there are differences in their respective levels of economic growth and industrialization. Southeast Asia includes developed countries such as Singapore and Brunei, middle-income countries such as the Philippines and Indonesia and also includes less developed ASEAN countries such as Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia and Myanmar. Industrialization is an important driving force for urbanization, thus varying levels of industrialization reflect varying levels of urbanization. For instance, in the late 1980s, Singapore’s manufacturing output per capita of exceeded $3,000, while Laos was yet to start the industrialization process. Third, Southeast Asian countries have different political and social environments. Political stability is a key external pre-condition for urbanization. War and political turmoil hindered economic development and urbanization in Vietnam and Laos, while by contrast, Singapore enjoyed political stability.
Despite their rapid urbanization growth rate at one stage or another, horizontally, the urbanization level of Southeast Asia is lower than that of other developed countries or regions, and even lower than that of world average (Figure 4). As early as the 1960s, the urbanization level of North America and Europe neared 70% and 57% respectively. By 2010, the average urbanization level of Southeast Asia had been still lower than that of Europe (72.7%) and North America (82%).
Figure 4 Percentage of Urban Population in different regions of the World 1950-2010
Source: Compiled and processed from UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs. World Urbanization Prospects 2011. 2012.
The major reason for the lower urbanization level in Southeast Asia compared to other developed countries is not due to a slow urbanization growth rate, as shown in the chart above, but to a large extent, is of the imbalance between urban and rural populations. The growth rate of the urban population in Southeast Asia is higher than growth rate of the rural population (Figure 5). However, due to a large base of rural residents, population growth is concentrated in rural areas (Figure 6). In 2011, among a population of 600 million in Southeast Asia, 332 million were rural, accounting for 55.3% of the total. Undoubtedly, that made the expansion of urbanization difficult, hence a small share of urban population (low level of urbanization).
Figure 5 Growth Rate of Urban and Rural Population in Southeast Asia
Source: Compiled and processed from UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs. World Urbanization Prospects 2011. 2012.
Figure 6 Proportion of Urban and Rural Populations in Southeast Asia 1950-2010
Source: Compiled and processed from UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs. World Urbanization Prospects 2011. 2012.
1.2.3 Urban Populations and Economic Activities Tended to be Heavily Concentrated in the Capital Cities in Southeast Asia.
The over-concentration of the urban population and economic activities in capital cities is a distinctive feature of urbanization in Southeast Asian countries. The capital cities of Southeast Asian countries tend to be the largest city in the country, such as Jakarta (Indonesia), Kuala Lumpur (Malaysia), Bangkok (Thailand), Manila (the Philippines), Ho Chi Minh City (Vietnam), and Phnom Penh (Cambodia). On top of this, capital city dwellers represent a large share of the total population in urban areas (Figure 7), a share large in Asia let alone the world. According to statistics, the population of Phnom Penh accounted for 81.2% and 53.9%12 of the total Cambodian population in 1970 and 2010 respectively. The populations of Vientiane and Bangkok exceeded one third of the total population of their respective countries (37.3% and 35.2%) in 2010. The populations of capital cities also tend to also be much higher than the population of the second largest city of that country. For instance, in 1970, the population of Bangkok was 33 times that of Changmai, the second largest city in Thailand. After decades of population expansion in Bangkok, there were 8.38 million people living there in 2010, while only 150,000 lived in Changmai. In other words, the population in Bangkok was 55 times that of Changmai. Capital cities are not only the largest city in those countries but also their political, economic and commercial center.
Figure 7 Percentage of Urban Population in the Largest Cities of Selected ASEAN Countries
Source: Compiled and processed from UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs. World Urbanization Prospects 2011. 2012.
The over-concentration of population in capital cities can be explained by their production capacity and economic structure. Take Bangkok as an example. Bangkok has developed into the economic center and outbound investment hub of Thailand since the beginning of the last century. In 2010, with a population 10% of the total Thai population, Bangkok created $98.3 billion of economic output, accounting for 29.1% of the national total. Half of the country’s tertiary sectors are concentrated in Bangkok. It is also the largest car-manufacturing base in Southeast Asia. The most important commercial and financial center of Thailand is in Bangkok. By contrast, other regions in Thailand lag far behind Bangkok and stand in striking contrast. Manila represents 15% of the total population of the Philippines, but it contributes 75% of the industrial output to the national total. The dramatic regional differences result in a polarized economic structure between the capital cities and other cities in Southeast Asia.
2.1 Urbanization, Economic Development and Poverty Reduction
Urbanization is conducive to economic growth, and sustainable economic growth is key to poverty reduction. The more urbanized a country is, the more investment and businesses it will attract. In that sense, urbanization is beneficial to development, especially economic development. Urbanization delivers many job opportunities and therefore attracts many rural migrants. For the poor, especially the poor from rural areas, cities represent more job opportunities, better lives and a way out of poverty.
However, will urbanization definitely reduce poverty? The answer could depend on how to measure ‘poverty’ and how to understand the relationship between society as a whole and individuals. If poverty is merely measured by income, the development of urbanization definitely causes an increase of income. In this sense, urbanization is helpful for poverty reduction in the city. However, according to Amartya Sen, poverty is multi-dimensional. Poverty does not merely mean an extremely low level of income, but also deprivation of opportunities and loss of rights. When the city cannot create more new job opportunities for the new comers, deeper inequality, growing unemployment and a poorer urban population will appear. Urbanization does not necessarily mean equal opportunity of everyone. For instance, the underclass and the poor often lack knowledge and skills, so they cannot easily get the equal job opportunities in the city as other people who are well educated. For the poor, city life might even mean living in a worse environment, loss and deprivation of rights and social exclusion. While urbanization could be a driving force for development and poverty elimination, it also has the potential risk to lead to new poverty.
2.2 Urbanization and Causes of Urban Poverty in Southeast Asia
Many studies indicate that urban poverty is more evident in the megacities of Southeast Asian countries. In theory, the larger concentrations of population in megacities should benefit from economies of scale. Development of megacities can promote economic growth and exert a positive impact on the economy and urbanization of the surrounding areas. The larger a city is, the more positive an impact it will have. Southeast Asian countries have adopted the strategy of driving national urbanization by focusing on the development of megacities, which is one reason why urbanization is so concentrated in capital cities. For instance, industrial activities are mostly concentrated in Bangkok, even to the point of saturation.
On the policy level, Southeast Asian governments generally focus more on the development of a particular city while neglecting the development of other regions, especially the rural areas. They make megacities the center of attraction, leading to a massive influx of rural migrants. To some extent, rural-urban migration is one of the reasons why Southeast Asia has been undergoing rapid urbanization. It is notable that the massive influx of rural migrants into cities is not entirely because the cities have enough capacity to provide jobs, but largely because the huge differences between urban development and rural development. In other words, the big push factor for urban population expansion results from economic depression and recession in rural areas.
The massive tide of rural migrants results in the rapid expansion and explosion of urban populations. However, the rate of migration is often much faster than the rate of urbanization and industrialization of the cities. Sometimes the number of migrants is far beyond the carrying capacity of the cities. Cities cannot provide enough infrastructure, public service and job opportunities to rural migrants, many of whom fall into poverty. Many Southeast Asian countries show such undesirable urbanization patterns, especially the Philippines and Thailand.
This extremely unbalanced urbanization puts intense pressure on cities, and in itself is at the expense of agriculture and rural development. It causes a loss of a rural workforce and limits continued development of rural areas.
2.3 Urban Poverty in Southeast Asia
Many studies in recent years indicate that measuring urban poverty only by income is too narrow a definition, because too many inequalities leading to poverty are neglected. According to the theory of multi-dimensional poverty, early death, malnutrition and low level of education can all be seen as deprivation of basic human capability, which can also be understood as a kind of poverty. From that perspective, urban poverty can be understood as insufficient income, a lack of job and schooling opportunities and equal access to social security systems as well as existence of many slums in the city. In this article, we will examine urban poverty in Southeast Asia from the perspective of multi-dimensional poverty.
2.3.1 Income and Urban Poverty
Southeast Asian countries have made tremendous achievements in reducing income poverty. But over one fifth of the population lives below the poverty line ($1.25/day). In the entire Asia-Pacific region, Southeast Asia still has a relatively high poverty headcount ratio. In 2011, the ratio was 21%, only lower than that of South Asia and Southwest Asia (36%). By 2010, nearly 10% of Indonesians lived below the national poverty line.
Income inequality is very prevalent in many Southeast Asian cities. Among the 35 most unequal cities in the developing world, five are Southeast Asian cities. The Gini coefficients of Bangkok, Ho Chi Minh City, Kuala Lumpur and Manila are 0.48, 0.53, 0.41 and 0.4 respectively, all surpassing the international warning line.
Because the rate of job creation is much lower than the rate of urban population growth, the unemployment rate and the rate of employment in informal sectors in Southeast Asian cities are much higher than those of cities in the developed world. The unemployment rate in Manila is the highest (11.8%) while the nationwide average is 7.1%. In Jakarta, Indonesia, 11.9% of people were unemployed in 2008. Many migrants, especially female migrants, have to work in informal sectors that do not provide medical insurance or labor security. In 2002, 64.9% of female Vietnamese worked in informal sectors in cities. 51.3% of female Filipinas worked in informal sectors while only 7.3% male Filipinos worked in the same sectors.
Will urbanization play a positive role in reducing poverty? As per a poverty line of $1.25 per day, the answer seems to be yes. Take Indonesia as an example. In 1990, 47.8% of the urban population and 51.7% of the rural population was living below the poverty line. But in 2005, the share of the urban population living below the poverty line was reduced to 18.7%, a share much lower than that of rural population. In that sense, poverty is being reduced at a faster pace. However, the higher rural poverty rate is due to a larger share of rural population and higher rural poverty headcount ratio in Southeast Asia.
Table 2 Proportion of the rural and urban population below the poverty line of PPP$1.25 per day
Year |
Poverty Headcount Ratio (%) |
Urban Population (%l) |
|
Rural Areas |
Urban Areas |
||
1990 |
51.7 |
47.8 |
30.6 |
2005 |
24.0 |
18.7 |
48.1 |
Source: World Bank. Povcal Net. Available at: http://go.worldbank.org/WE8P1I8250.
If we use the urban poverty line as the measure of poverty, we can see similar trends in other Southeast Asian countries. In 1988, over 43% of urban Thai lived below the urban poverty line. A decade later, the figure was almost halved (20.4%). In 2011, only less than 9% lived below the urban poverty line. In addition, the percentage of urban poor in Cambodia was reduced from 21.1% in 1997 to 11.8% in 2007.
Figure 8 Poverty Headcount Ratio at Urban Poverty Line in Thailand (% of Urban Population)
Source: Compiled and processed from World Bank. World Development Indicators 2013. 2013.
Moreover, apart from urban-rural disparity, regional divisions, especially between megacities and remote areas, is evident in many Southeast Asian countries. From the Thailand Millennium Development Goals Report 2009 submitted to the UN by the Office of the National Economic and Social Development Board, the poverty rate of northeast Thailand was much higher than that of other Thai regions, followed by the north, the south and the central regions. The poverty rate of Bangkok, in central Thailand, had the lowest poverty rate in the country in 2009.
The poverty gap index estimates the depth of poverty by considering how far, on the average, the poor are from a poverty line. In most Southeast Asian countries, by the standards of an urban poverty line, the poverty gap has narrowed. For example, the urban poverty gap index in Malaysia dropped from 0.5% in 2004 to 0.3% in 2009. In Indonesia it dropped from 2.4% in 2003 to 1.4% in 2012.
2.3.2 Education and Urban Poverty
With rapid industrialization and urbanization, many rural working-age people migrate to cities. But because of poor educational facilities, education level indicators of some Southeast Asian populations are much lower than that of populations in the developed world. The enrollment rate of urban school-age children in primary school is higher than that of their rural counterparts. This shows educational facilities in cities are better than rural areas, and proves uneven urban-rural distribution of human capital. In 2003 in the Philippines, the urban boys’ enrollment rate was 88.7% versus 89.3% for urban girls, both higher than that of their rural counterparts (84% vs 85.6%). Vietnam and Indonesia basically followed the same pattern.
But within cities, access to education is not equal. The poorer the family is, there is less access to education and more obvious boy-girl inequality. Take Indonesia as an example. Girls’ enrollment was lower than boys’. Enrollment of poor urban residents, especially girls from slums, was lower than the urban average and even lower than that of rural girls in 2009. Indonesian poor families are worse off in this regard. It is getting worse in recent years with enrollment of girls from slums dropping from 79.1% in 1994 to 77.4% in 1997 and to 73.1% in 2002.
This pattern is not only reflected in the enrollment rate of poor girls but also in the illiteracy rate of urban women. The illiteracy rate of women in slums is much higher than the urban average. In 2002, the average illiteracy rate of urban women in Vietnam and Indonesia was 2.7% and 2.2%, but that of women in slums was 5.4%, more than twice the urban average.
2.3.3 Health and Urban Poverty
In theory, compared to rural areas, cities enjoy better medical conditions, but in reality, that is not true. The urban poor cannot enjoy urban medical services due to the constraints of heath-care conditions, transport, environment and personal behaviors. Furthermore, urban residents are more likely to suffer from malnutrition or mental illness related to economic or life stresses compared to their rural counterparts. In many countries, the rich-poor divide within cities is wider than that in rural areas. In many cases, the nutrition status of poor urban families is worse than that of poor rural families. Malnutrition, hunger and illness are more common in cities.
The National Demographic and Health Surveys (DHS) in Indonesia and the Philippines (Table 3) reveal that the infant mortality rate and the under-5 mortality rate of the poorest income quintile are significantly higher in urban than in rural areas. This disparity in mortality outcomes may reflect higher environmental health risks in cities. The DHS surveys also show surprisingly lower immunization coverage for measles and diphtheria, tetanus and polio in urban areas than in rural for the poorest income quintile in the Philippines. The findings indicate that an urban advantage in access to services does not always exist, especially for poor urban residents.
Table 3 Health Indicators by Urban-Rural Residence in Indonesia and the Philippines
Indonesia 1997 |
||||||||||
indicators |
Urban income quintiles |
Rural income quintiles |
||||||||
Poorest |
Second |
Middle |
Fourth |
Richest |
Poorest |
Second |
Middle |
Fourth |
Richest |
|
Infant mortality rate |
46.5 |
75.3 |
3.3 |
34.9 |
25.6 |
78.9 |
55.5 |
54.0 |
42.2 |
18.5 |
Under-5 mortality rate |
102.3 |
112.8 |
456.5 |
44.7 |
31.3 |
109.1 |
72.8 |
73.5 |
56.0 |
24.6 |
The Philippines 1998 |
||||||||||
Indicators |
Urban income quintiles |
Rural income quintiles |
||||||||
Poorest |
Second |
Middle |
Fourth |
Richest |
Poorest |
Second |
Middle |
Fourth |
Richest |
|
Infant mortality rate |
49.7 |
40.1 |
37.6 |
24.8 |
17.7 |
48.7 |
38.7 |
28.4 |
25.1 |
35.5 |
Under-5 mortality rate |
70.5 |
62.9 |
57.9 |
33.2 |
26.9 |
81.2 |
59.2 |
38.8 |
33.7 |
39.8 |
Source: World Bank. Urban Poverty in East Asia, 2001a. p.26.
In the Philippines, both infant and child mortality are somewhat worse for urban than for rural populations at the lower quintiles. Access to medically trained personnel is better in urban areas, but fees for health care in the Philippines create a significant strain on urban households. In Naga City, 68% of respondents suffer from all kinds of diseases and 57% suffer from cancer, asthma or cardiovascular disease. This is more common for poor urban residents.
Health outcomes, especially for young children, may also reflect difficulties in nutrition. A report on the Philippines in 1999 found that 20% of the extremely poor in urban areas reported hunger in the last three months, and 11% said they felt hunger ‘always’. In Vietnam as of 1994, over one million (9%) of the total urban population could not meet the basic requirement of 2,100 calories daily. About one-fourth of the children who were found to be malnourished lived in major cities such as Ho Chi Minh City and Hanoi.
For Vietnam, the urban population overall reports a lower incidence of sickness (38%) than did their rural counterparts (43%) (Table 4). However, the urban poor are sick more often than the rural poor are.
Table 4 Health Status in Vietnam, by Poverty Status, Rural/Urban
|
Not poor |
Poor |
Total |
|
Rural |
Was not sick |
56.9 |
57.7 |
57.3 |
Was sick |
43.1 |
42.3 |
42.7 |
|
Urban |
Was not sick |
63.1 |
54.2 |
62.3 |
Was sick |
36.9 |
45.8 |
37.7 |
Source: World Bank. Urban Poverty in the East Asian Region, Volume 2: Annex Tables. 2002. p.134.
Although urban residents earn more than rural residents, the former spend more on medical treatment than the latter does. Statistics reveal that urban residents, poor or non-poor, spend a greater proportion of their income on health care than the rural population. The urban poor spend almost as much on health care as the non-poor do, even though the poor would be expected to rely more on free public services. This shows a lack of government commitment to the poor.
Table 5 Health Expenditure in Vietnam, by Poverty Status, Rural/Urban, (% of Total Household Expenditure)
|
Not Poor |
Poor |
Total |
Rural |
0.7% |
0.71% |
0.7% |
Urban |
1.62% |
1.43% |
1.6% |
Source: World Bank. Urban Poverty in the East Asian Region, Volume 2. 2002. p.132.
Sexually transmitted diseases, including HIV-AIDS, are increasing rapidly in urban areas. The higher prevalence of HIV-AIDS in large urban areas (e.g. Ho Chi Minh City) as compared with smaller urban and rural areas is apparent in many countries.
2.3.4 Water, Sanitation and Urban Poverty
In many Southeast Asian countries, cities cannot satisfy residents’ needs for public sanitation facilities. Underinvestment in water and sewage facilities causes drinking water insecurity for many urban residents, especially for those who live in slums. World Bank statistics show that there are huge differences in access to safe water and sanitation facilities among Southeast Asian countries (Figure 9). Laos, Vietnam, Myanmar and Cambodia, the four new ASEAN members, are much further behind, compared to more urbanized and industrialized countries.
Figure 9 Population with Access to Improved Water (% of Urban Population)
Source: Compiled and processed from World Bank. World Bank Human Development Indicators 2001. 2001b.
Figure 10 Population with Access to Improved Sanitation (% of Urban Population)
Source: Compiled and processed from World Bank. World Bank Human Development Indicators 2001.2001b.
Meanwhile, the ratio of urban households with access to tap water varies widely. In Phnom Penh, 86% of households have access to tap water, while the ratio is very low or even less than 50% in other locations in Cambodia. Less than one third of urban households in Indonesia use tap water. Moreover, water supply lags far behind the demands of rapidly rising urban populations. In recent years, the percentage of urban households with access to tap water has been falling. In Jakarta, the percentage of households with access to tap water fell from 35.6% in 1997 to 29.7% in 2007. In Palembang and Medan, the access rate to tap water fell from 81.2% and 68% to 16.8% and 48.6% respectively. The same problem exists in many cities in the Philippines and Vietnam.
Sewage treatment in most Southeast Asian countries has not reached 100 percent, but has improved in the recent decade. The percentage of homes connected to sewer lines in Manila increased to 96.7% from 92.3% in 1998, and in Ho Chi Minh City increased from 92.7% to 96.6%. Despite the high sewage discharge rate city-wide, low-income groups and especially slum residents contribute little to that rate because of poor sanitation and inadequate government planning and investment.
2.3.5 Housing and Urban Poverty
Slums are generally a run-down populous area of a city characterized by substandard housing and impoverishment. Normally, the poverty rate of cities is lower than that of the rural areas. However, living conditions within the city are vastly different, which is an important dimension of urban polarization. When we divide statistics of urban and rural areas into the statistics of rural area, urban area, slum, and non-slum, we will find that lives of slum residents are not better off than their rural counterparts in terms of non-income factors such as education and health care.
In Southeast Asia, 31% of urban population lived in slums in 2010, the second highest ratio in history. A high ratio means poor quality of life and high mortality of children in countries with many slum dwellers, such as Laos, Cambodia and Myanmar.
Figure 11 reveals that in the early 1990s, almost half of the urban population in Southeast Asian countries lived in slums. Before 2000, the ratio of slum dwellers in Southeast Asia was higher than the average ratio of developing countries. This lasted to the beginning of this century. Since 2000, the ratio of slum dwellers in Southeast Asia has been lower than the average ratio of developing countries. On the whole, the long-term ratio of slum dwellers in Southeast Asia is decreasing.
However, there is great diversity in the status of slums in each of the Southeast Asian countries. In Table 6, it shows that between 1990s and 2005, the number of slum dwellers in the Philippines and Vietnam decreased while in Myanmar, Laos and Cambodia the number increased. A higher ratio represents poor quality of life and more often than not, a high mortality of children.
Figure 11 Proportion of Urban Population living in Slums
Source: Compiled and processed from UN-HABITAT. World Urbanization Prospects: The 2007 Revision. 2007a.
Table 6 Population in Slums (% of Urban Population)
Country |
1990 |
2001 |
2005 |
Cambodia |
72 |
72 |
78.9 |
Indonesia |
32 |
23 |
26.3 |
Laos |
66 |
66 |
79.3 |
Myanmar |
31 |
26 |
45.6 |
The Philippines |
55 |
44 |
43.7 |
Vietnam |
60 |
47 |
41.3 |
Source: UN-HABITAT. Global Urban Indicators. 2007b.
Urbanization should not merely aim to promote industrialization and economic growth. It should also mean the urbanization of the people, which implies to improve people’s well-being. Urbanization should be people-focused. How to provide relatively equal opportunities and livable environments and how to provide the means for livelihood in the cities are issues of concern. The government should pay more attention to living conditions of vulnerable groups, respect their rights of survival and value democratic engagement in the decision-making process.
Through the analysis of urban poverty in Southeast Asian countries, it can be seen that urban poverty has many causes, including poor government planning and slow urban-rural integration, limited job opportunities, uneven distribution of wealth and opportunities, inadequate provision of basic public service, and a lack of social participation. These causes imply that the role of government is crucial. In the following, some effective governmental policies and practices for urban poverty reduction in Southeast Asian countries will be discussed.
3.1 Urbanization and Urban-Rural Integration
Many of problems associated with urban poverty in Southeast Asia are rooted in over-concentration of population and economic activity in megacities. A healthy and sustainable process of urbanization is to balance the development of rural and urban areas. Some Southeast Asian countries have committed to developing lagging rural areas through the development of small towns. For instance, the government of Thailand initiated comprehensive rural development policies aimed at increasing the incomes of farmers and quality of life and promoting the development of small towns. To ease population pressures on cities and transforming villages into small towns, the Thai government has established a multi-layered rural development management system, invested heavily in small town development, and developed small towns into comprehensive rural centers.
Two of Thailand’s such measures are as follows: (a) Programs for reducing rural poverty. The government tries to improve and the rural poor’s living standards through assistance of means of production, improvement of public facilities and promotion of technology. (b) Non-farming jobs creation programs. The government aims at increasing non-farming income of the farmers through government fiscal support and development of non-farming sectors. After years of efforts, the number of extremely poor villages has been significantly reduced. By narrowing the rural-urban divide through developing small towns, the pressure put on megacities by large scale rural-urban migration has been alleviated.
In order to decentralize the urban population in Thailand, the Thai government also gives tax incentives to regions outside Bangkok. By doing so, the government hoped to stimulate the development of new industry centers in Bangkok’s neighboring provinces. However, in practice, the measure was ineffectively implemented because the government failed to improve the infrastructure and supporting facilities as prerequisites of any production activities. For businesses, investing in Bangkok, the capital city with well-established infrastructure and abundant human resources, is much better an option than investing in low-tax regions. The failure of the policy measure proves how big the challenge facing Southeast Asian countries is in their endeavor to solve urban over-concentration.
3.2 Employment Opportunities in Cities
Urban unemployment is a serious social issue. It worsens urban poverty and triggers social instability. Unemployment of the urban poor has two distinctive features. First, the urban poor are mostly unskilled surplus labor force. Second, they generally work in informal sectors like the tertiary sector. Engaged in informal sector activities, they tend to have low pay, unsteady jobs, and few protections against job insecurity. These two features make the employment issue more difficult to solve.
Many Southeast Asian countries facilitate employment in the urban areas by enhancing professional and skills training. Thailand spent $130 million on providing skills training to the jobless in 1998. In its first year, this policy measure helped about 140,000 people gain employment in food processing sectors. In 1994, the government of the Philippines set up the Technical Education and Skills Development Authority which has many branches in other cities besides Manila offering free training services.
In addition, many governments in Southeast Asian countries provide the jobless with career information and consulting. The government of the Philippines established its Bureau of Local Employment to provide employment services. The Bureau is an official intermediary institution. Job seekers and employers can register with the Bureau and reach an employment agreement based on mutual intention. The government of Thailand set up a 24/7 career guidance center and spent vast amounts in building an employment information database to provide free career information and consulting to people looking for work.
One unique measure to promote urban employment adopted by many Southeast Asian countries such as Indonesia and the Philippines is exporting the labor force overseas. For instance, the Philippines expanded its labor market in Central Asia, South Asia and Africa and exported a total of 750,000 well-trained people overseas in 1997, alleviating the pressure of urban surplus labor force and employment and thus profiting substantially from foreign exchange earnings. In 2001, $460 million was repatriated to Indonesia by people working overseas.
Furthermore, Southeast Asian countries have tried some other measures to help the urban unemployed find work. For instance, the Indonesian government encourages the urban unemployed originally from rural areas and those who have relatives and friends in rural areas to engage in farm work and provide those people who have returned with living subsidies and production loans. To some extent, this measure reduces the pressure put by the unemployed on urban development.
3.3 Slum Upgrading
The role of government in urbanization is limited. One approach adopted by Southeast Asian countries to transform the slums is government guidance plus participation of the private sector, community, NGOs and residents. The major strategies of slum rebuilding are slum elimination, incorporation into the overall urban development plan and slum upgrading. Compared to slum elimination, slum upgrading is more cost-effective, so it is the preferred solution for many Southeast Asian countries.
The private sector plays an irreplaceable role in infrastructure-building such as housing and slum transformation. The non-government nature and sensitivity to risks and costs make the private sector an ideal participant in developing affordable project plans. Some local governments in Southeast Asia are signing turn-key contracts with private sector firms to design plans of renovation, transformation and construction of urban housing (or slums) so as to increase efficiency and control costs. One way is to include slums and informal places of residence to local government transformation projects with market feasibility and design commercially workable projects.
Strategic Private Sector Partnerships for Urban Poverty Reduction in Metro Manila (STEP-UP) is an exemplar of public-private cooperation. National Urban Development and Housing Framework (2009-2016) (NUDHF) points out that urban housing, especially slums, are hindering urban development in the Philippines. Slums and informal housing are particular problems of urban housing. The government found that it could not satisfy the growing housing demand on its own so it adopted an innovative strategy: engaging the private sector. Government spending on housing is less than 1% of the total budget, which is the lowest in Asia. Slum transformation programs are characterized by public-private participation. Besides government, over 200 businesses and 34 Homeowners Associations are involved. Businesses have four major responsibilities: participation in slum transformation, educational assistance, skills training and first aid training. Some of the major activities featuring business engagement are shown clearly in the column below.
Special Column Major Activities Featuring Business Engagement in STEP-UP
l Slum Transformation: AAI employees contribute 24 hours annually to house furnishing and community landscaping. GST employees take part in house construction.
l Educational Assistance: Citibank and Deutsche Bank AG made substantial donations of public school buildings. Credit Suisse provided scholarships for 20 elementary students. Some other companies offered tutorials for the children.
l Skills Training: HOLCIM, a local cement manufacturing company, upgraded painting skills of community members.
l First Aid Training: Nestle conducted free Fire Prevention & First Aid Training sessions.
Source: Steinberg, Florian. ‘Philippines: Strategic Private Sector Partnerships for Urban Poverty Reduction in Metro Manila’, in Steinberg, Florian and Lindfield, Michael.(eds.). Inclusive Cities. ADB.2011, p.71.
This program has upgraded 23 poor communities, improved housing conditions for 1,350 poor families and provided training sessions to 741 individuals in Manila.
The Indonesian government has also developed many social assistance programs for the urban poor, the most important one being its National Program for Community Empowerment. It is a program that relies on the community as its driving force. An important method for change is to empower and mobilize the community to engage in government-led transformation and improvement actions. The Program includes three parts: community empowerment, community capacity-building, provision of policies and technical support by the government. Placed at the community level, volunteer groups can help community members to design, manage and execute targeted development plans. The Program is one of the major strategies for urban poverty reduction in Indonesia. A World Bank report (2012) states that this program is a very effective approach for community participation in infrastructure building.
4.1 Coordinating Urbanization and Urban-Rural Integration
Since the 1970s, China’s urbanization level has been rapidly rising with ratio of urban population increasing to 51.3% in 2011 from 18% in 1978. Despite the fact that China is experiencing a period of rapid urbanization, due to historical, political and economic reasons, rural areas and urban areas are separate in terms of household registration (hukou), social security, health care and education systems.
From Southeast Asia’s experience, emphasizing urban expansion over rural development is shortsighted. Instead, the government should improve the economic and living conditions of the rural areas and increase living standards and incomes of farmers so as to realize balanced urban-rural development. In the process of urbanization, the government should also modernize agriculture, increase agricultural productivity, facilitate infrastructure building in the rural areas and realize integrated development of urban and rural areas.
The government should also pay attention to the migrant population and rural workers and respect their rights and interests so that they will not become disadvantaged and vulnerable groups in the city. That requires policy considerations on rural migrant workers in urban planning, household registration, public service access (especially housing, employment, children’s education and health care) and economic and livelihood security so that they can integrate into cities and enjoy the same public services as their urban counterparts.
4.2 Pursuing a Diversified Pattern of Urbanization
One of the lessons learned is to avoid urban population explosion and over-concentration of population in megacities. Over-concentration of the migrant population will give rise to over-concentration of slum dwellers, an issue of concern for many Southeast Asian countries in the process of urbanization. The Chinese government should, therefore, step up the development of small towns. It is meaningless to pursue a higher urbanization rate and it is neither realistic nor scientific for every city to become a megacity.
China should pursue a diversified pattern of urbanization. On the one hand, the government should endeavor to build core metropolises with international competitiveness and pillar industries and develop metropolis-based urban agglomerations. There are three urban agglomerations in China, namely the Pearl River Delta, Yangtze River Delta and Bohai Rim. On the other hand, the government should actively develop small towns, because small towns act as an important bond between cities and villages due to their geographic proximity. However, the development of small towns is a weak link in China’s urbanization process. A wise way to develop small towns is to build local specialty industries in line with local characteristics. This two-pronged approach can maintain diversity of urban development in the process of urbanization.
4.3 Creating New Employment Opportunities
Southeast Asian policies for promoting employment are very relevant to China. The government should provide skills training to the unemployed and rural migrant workers. In particular, the government should provide the migrant population, especially rural migrant workers, with targeted job information, develop IT systems and service capacity of employment service agencies and analyze local employment status and economic growth.
Exporting labor and gaining foreign exchange are practices worth learning from as they can ease the burden of unemployment and play a supplementary role in spurring economic growth. The government can identify appropriate countries for labor export and establish partnerships with the labor-importing countries and with domestic multinationals in order to ensure the safety and security of Chinese workers overseas.
4.4 Involving Different Stakeholders into the Development of the Urbanization Process
STEP-UP shows that government efforts alone are far from enough. Stakeholders such as businesses, communities and NGOs should also be engaged in urbanization. China’s society is inadequately involved in urbanization. The core of integrating government planning and social involvement is that urbanization can faithfully reflect people’s needs, interests and issues of concern.
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Chapter 8: New Challenges for China’s Anti-poverty Policy during the Process of Urban-rural Integration
LIN Wanlong
(College of Economics & Management, China Agricultural University)
Since the 1980s, the Chinese government has been dedicated to eliminating poverty in both rural and urban areas and has made significant achievements. Taking the poverty line of US$1.25 for daily expenses, poverty incidence in China was estimated to be as high as 84.0% in 1981, much higher than that in India (59.8%); the figure sharply dropped to 16.3% in 2005 in China and was much lower than that in India (41.6%). Most of the absolute impoverished population remaining in China are in “chronic” poverty -impoverished groups lacking normal labor capacity or basic means of subsistence (Asian Development Bank (ADB), 2004).Such groups will be adequately covered under the minimum living allowance system being established across the country. China’s antipoverty policies seem to be complete and well-targeted thanks to the “development-oriented poverty relief” that has been a long-term policy of the Chinese government and has mainly targeted the low-income groups in rural areas.
Nevertheless, the reality is not as it seems. New challenges are emerging from the ever-enlarging poverty issue during the process of urban-rural integration, i.e. this problem is closely related to the accelerating urbanization process in the past three decades and is expected to continue in the coming 15-20 years in China. If we study China’s poverty problem by taking this process into account and consider “poverty” not only in income but also in multiple dimensions, which include factors such as lack of rights and deficiency in basic welfare, as well as antipoverty work not only to solve the “immediate” poverty but also control the risk of falling into poverty, we will clearly see that new challenges come along with the achievements already gained.
One huge challenge exists in the rural population’s migration. In the past 30 years, China has experienced a mass migration of its rural labor force as never before, considered to be the largest population migration in peacetime in history (World Bank, 2009). The “floating population” resulting from this migration is an enormous and ever-increasing number, estimated at about 150 million. This mass migration has increased China’s urbanization rate from 26% in 1990 to 47% in 2009. And the tendency is expected to continue in the coming 15-20 years.
However, a range of policies in China has been designed separately for rural and urban areas and for rural and urban residents, and so have the long-adopted antipoverty policies which therefore cannot counter the impact of rural-urban integration. Though the Chinese government has in recent years implemented dozens of policies and measures to build the subsistence safety net for urban and rural residents, the current problem lies in the fact that such a net is cut into two parts for urban and rural areas, instead of being an effectively connected “net” planned as a whole. This is the major cause of vulnerability in groups not covered by this net, which are obviously lagging behind the process of urban-rural economic integration.
Migration and urbanization in China will persist for a long period. Meanwhile, the complete elimination of urban-rural separation in social services and special anti-poverty policies in China is a long-term process. So resolving the poverty of China’s floating rural population is not only a long-term process but also a hard task. Attention should also be paid to the issue of poverty in this new and large vulnerable group in addition to the traditional rural poor groups.
From the perspective of lack of rights and deficiency in basic welfare, the poverty risk of the rural floating population is mainly shown as vulnerability, which means that members of this group are exposed to personal, employment, development and other risks.
(1) Unstable employment and heavy workload. As is shown in a 2009 survey, only 42.8% of migrant workers signed labor contracts with their employers or employing units; 89.9% of them worked over the44 hours per week prescribed by the Labor Law; and those in the catering industry worked more than 60 hours per week (NBS Department of Rural Social and Economic Survey, 2010).
(2) Inadequate guarantees for medical care and personal safety. In 2009, the rates of pension as well as work injury, medical, unemployment and maternity insurance paid by employers or employing units for rural migrant workers were 7.6%, 21.8%, 12.2%, 3.9% and 2.3% respectively; and the proportion of insured rural migrant workers in the central and western parts of the country was significantly lower than that in the eastern part (NBS Department of Rural Social and Economic Survey, 2010).
(3) Danger of intergenerational poverty. Due to the unequal right to education for migrant rural workers’ children compared with that for children living in cities, the gap may grow even wider between the two groups, and thus will cause intergenerational poverty in migrant workers.
(4) Specific risks faced by female migrant workers. According to the comprehensive survey launched by the National Coordination Group for Safeguarding the Rights and Interests of Women and Children (2007), in 2006, only 36.4% of employing units permitted full lawful maternity leave for their female migrant workers, only 12.8% reimbursed their female employees for medical care fees for maternity, and as many as 64.5% paid no salaries to female employees for their maternity leave; 58.2% of female migrant rural workers had to go back to their villages, rather than the city where they worked, for regular checks during pregnancy, which brought lots of trouble for them and increased their economic burden and employment difficulty; and 46.3% of the surveyed female migrant workers said that they often felt exhausted both physically and psychologically, 18 percentage points and 11.5 percentage points higher than those for male rural workers and rural women respectively.
Thus it can be seen that compared to traditional income poverty, the impoverished group in the rural floating population is often difficult to define and its major risk is vulnerability. This poverty is multidimensional, and it is the result of policies rather than being chronic, which means the cause lies in defects in the policy system, rather than from inability of the vulnerable individuals.
From the perspective of vulnerability and multidimensional poverty, the main disadvantage in the current antipoverty policy system in terms of the poverty of the rural floating population is that the current antipoverty system and policy are designed separately for rural and urban areas and residents in these areas and find it hard to counter the challenges brought by rural population mobility. To be specific, the problem is mainly shown in the following three aspects.
3.1 Non-inclusive urbanization patterns make it hard for the rural floating population to share the benefits
China's current urbanization process is non-inclusive of the floating population, thereby weakening the ability of this vulnerable group to cope with risks of transition poverty. This "non-inclusive" nature is obvious in the discriminatory employment and welfare system along with the household registration system.
Though discrimination against migrant rural workers in urban markets has been eased to some extent in recent years, there are still quite a number of defects in laws and regulations supposed to protect migrant workers from such discrimination. China’s reform of the household registration system has lifted some restrictions on migrant workers registering in urban areas, but only in middle- and small-sized cities and towns. However, this reform has failed to reduce the costs to rural workers of working in cities, as most migrant rural workers tend to work in large and mega cities. Furthermore, there are still preconditions for migrant workers to register in middle- and small-sized cities and towns; for example, migrant workers can register in cities only if they buy houses in these places. This has cast a shadow of “elite urbanization” over urban-rural integration.
The discriminatory employment and benefits system accompanying the household registration system undoubtedly weakens the ability of the floating population to share in the achievements of urban-rural integration, and are very disadvantageous for easing the vulnerability of this group.
3.2 The dual-structured urban-rural public service system limits the adequacy of the subsistence safety net in assisting vulnerable groups to respond to the risks of transitional poverty
The urban-rural public service system in China is still incontrovertibly a “dual” structure, which is mainly reflected in isolated policy systems for basic public services with different operational mechanisms in urban and rural areas. Such a division indicates that urban-rural integration has not been realized within the public service system thus far in China.
Take the compulsory education policy for example. Since 1985, China has adopted a compulsory education system of “local responsibilities and deregulated administration”, which leads to a urban-rural divide. In such a situation, the central and provincial governments have strengthened the financial transfer payments for rural compulsory education; however, the governments of receiving cities are confronted with heavy financial pressure because of the lack of fiscal transfer policy support for compulsory education of migrant workers’ children, since the financial transfer payments are still based on the permanently registered population.
Then we come to the basic medical care policy. The areas to be covered and management systems of the current basic medical insurance system for urban employees and the New Type of Rural Cooperative Medical Care System(NTRCMCS) obviously have a dual urban-rural structure. Such systems cannot meet the requirements of the huge floating population in urban and rural areas in China, nor can they adapt to rapid economic development and urbanization.
The basic social security policy is also obviously structured in a dual urban-rural manner. Many areas in China have set up basic social security systems covering groups such as flexibly employed urban residents, migrant rural workers, farmers engaging in agriculture, and landless farmers, but these systems are nevertheless dualistically divided between urban and rural areas and separate private and public sectors in a fragmented way (Zheng Bingwen, 2009). There has been no integrated plan to link up the various social security systems. Taking the pension system for rural migrant workers for example, the basic pension scheme for urban employees and the new rural social endowment insurance have so far not been connected. Insurance levels for different social security systems (quality disparity) are quite different.
The lack of basic public services caused by the dual-structured system of basic public service weakens the ability of part of the floating population and landless farmers to respond to various personal or economic risks, and leaves them vulnerable to the potential risks of losing development opportunities and capacities, and consequently of impoverishment. Take medical care for example. Separated urban-rural medical care services exclude a large floating population from the urban medical insurance system as well as NTRCMCS, reducing accessibility to services for the floating population.
According to statistics from the Ministry of Human Resources and Social Security of the People’s Republic of China, the number of migrant workers who were covered by the urban medical insurance system in 2009 was 43.35 million, accounting for only 29% of all 150 million migrant rural workers in China. Actually, though NTRCMCS has covered almost all rural areas, migrant workers are excluded from the system due to difficulties in payment and reimbursement (Lin Wanlong, 2009a).
3.3 Specialized anti-poverty policies based on urban-rural segmentation cannot include the population trapped in transitional poverty in specialized poverty monitoring and supporting systems
The current poverty reduction offices and social security departments in charge of rural poverty alleviation are set up based upon administrative divisions, and can only launch poverty relief projects targeting local rural poor groups within their own jurisdiction, thus being unable to help the poor floating population. The urban minimum living allowance system, on the other hand, only provides minimum living allowances for the urban poor population, but not for the floating population in urban areas. It thus can be seen that both urban and rural poverty relief systems have strong “local limits”, so that the large floating population is excluded from present poverty alleviation systems and becomes an “out of-system” poor group.
The double standards of poverty adopted for urban and rural areas in fact exclude the rural floating population and the current separate monitoring systems for urban and rural areas cannot detect the poverty suffered by them. As the poor people within the huge floating population are not included in monitoring, poverty monitoring quality, and thus the design of antipoverty policies, will be substantially affected. Poor people still comprise a substantial proportion of migrants, even according to the general income poverty line. In the report containing the studies described above, the World Bank quoted certain statistics from the rural household survey launched by the National Bureau of Statistics: the poverty incidence for migrant families was 8%, whilst that for left-behind households was 11% (World Bank, 2009). Other studies have shown that the poverty incidence for the mobile population from rural areas to cities was 14% in 2002 (Khan and Riskin, 2005), indicating that this is more than 20 million poor of the rural mobile population of 150 million. Whichever figure is more accurate, close attention must be paid to the income poverty of the mobile population.
To sum up, the ever-increasing population of migrant rural workers, landless farmers and left-behind people in China’s urban-rural integration form new poor and vulnerable groups that are different from traditional ones, with low incomes, limited development resources and severe conditions. At present, China’s macro antipoverty policy and specialized poverty relief policy systems have several defects in tackling the risks of transitional poverty confronting these groups. The main problem is the urban-rural divide in the policy system.
China must establish a policy system and a development mode that benefits all vulnerable groups and allows them to share the achievements of urban-rural integration. We should avoid problems such as a widening rich-poor gap and estrangement or even opposition between rich and poor groups, which occur frequently in the context of urbanization in developing countries. China must not put undue emphasis on efficiency and speed; instead, we should reform the single urban-rural economic integration into a comprehensive process. We should devote major efforts to developing labor-intensive industries and enhancing urban capacities for job creation and build a unified and fair production factor market in urban and rural areas, especially promoting the “non-elite” household registration system so that there are no restrictions on household registration for the immigrant population. This will enable most employees in urban areas to gain permanent residence in urban areas.
The “dual” urban-rural public service system should be reformed to eliminate public service quality disparity for different groups and promote urban-rural integration in the basic public service policy system. The essence of building an “integrated” urban-rural public service system is breaking the boundaries between urban and rural areas step by step, establishing an integrated rather than a “fragmented” urban-rural public service system, and building a nationwide subsistence safety net covering all the vulnerable groups in urban and rural areas, taking urban and rural residents as a whole. Taking the actual situation and conditions into account, we will accelerate and enhance the setting up of links between existing urban and rural policies. Based upon all these elements, we can finish the transition between policy systems and realize policy integration.
We should consider the floating population when setting antipoverty objectives and establishing a linked-up urban-rural poverty reduction system. China’s new poverty reduction strategy will pay more attention to transitional poverty suffered by vulnerable groups, highlighting risks of impoverishment for these groups, and making it a crucial link in future macro poverty relief strategies to enhance development capacities and opportunities of vulnerable groups. We should establish and strengthen poverty relief policy by targeting people rather than being locality-limited; moreover, we should develop comparable and gradually improved urban and rural poverty lines as well as a poverty monitoring system covering urban and rural areas. We should also integrate the resources of poverty relief organizations and establish integrated urban-rural poverty relief coordination institutions to promote a linked-up and unified urban-rural poverty relief system.
References
1. Asian Development Bank, 2004, Proposals for Establishing “the Minimum Living Allowance” System in Rural Areas and Providing Adequate Food and Clothing, Observations and Proposals, ed. Asian Development Bank PRC Resident Mission, Feb. 1
2. China Development Research Foundation, 2010, China Development Report 2010: China’s New Type Urbanization Strategy to Accelerate Development of Human Being, Renmin Press
3. Department of Rural Social and Economic Survey under National Bureau of Statistics of China, 2010, Survey on Monitoring over Migrant Workers 2009, http://www.stats.gov.cn/was40/gjtjj_outline.jsp
4. Khan,A.Z. and Riskin,C., 2005, China’s Household Income And Its Distribution: 1995 and 2002, China Quarterly, 182:356-384
5. Lin Wanlong, 2009, Issues of Policy for Rural Basic Medical Services under Urban-rural Integration, Survey Report supported by Program for New Century Excellent Talents (NCET) of Ministry of Education, China
6. National Coordination Group of Safeguarding Rights and Interests of Women and Children, 2007, Survey Report of Status and Safeguarding of Rural Women’s Rights and Interests, Chinese Women’s Movement, Vol. 3
7. Ravallion, M.,2010, A Comparative Perspective on Poverty Reduction in Brazil, China, and India, The World Bank Research Observer Advance Access, March 8
8. Research Team under Party School of the Central Committee of CPC, 2010, Exploration of Integrated Urban-rural Medical Security System, Qiu Shi, Vol. 1
9. World Bank, 2009, From Poor Areas to Poor People: China’s Evolving Poverty Reduction Agenda, Washington, DC
10. Zheng Bingwen, 2009, “Fragmentation” or “Unity”: Comparison of Social Security Modes in UK, France and USA, Journal of Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, Vol. 4
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